| APPENDIX
Clearance Shorthand
The shorthand system given here is recommended by the Federal Aviation
Administration. Applicants for the Instrument Rating may use any shorthand
system, in any language, which ensures accurate compliance with ATC
instructions. No shorthand system is required by regulation and no knowledge of
shorthand is required for the written test; however, because of the vital
necessity for safe coordination between the pilot and controller, clearance
information should be unmistakably clear.
As an instrument pilot, you
should make a written record of all ATC clearances and instructions that consist
of more than a few words; and any portions that are complex, or about which
there is any doubt, should be verified by a repeat back. Safety demands that you
receive correctly and do not forget any part of your clearance.
Occasionally ATC will issue a clearance that differs from the original
request. In such cases, the pilot must be particularly alert to be sure that he
receives and understands the clearance given.
The following symbols and contractions represent words and phrases
frequently used in clearances. Most of them are regularly used by ATC personnel.
Learn them along with the location identifiers which you will use.
By
using this shorthand, omitting the parenthetical words, you will be able, after
some practice, to copy long clearances as fast as they are read.
WORDS AND
PHRASES
SHORTHAND
ABOVE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ABV
ABOVE (ALTITUDE--HUNDREDS OF FEET) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70
ADVISE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ADV
AFTER (PASSING) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
<
AIRWAY (DESIGNATION) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
V26
AIRPORT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- A
ALTERNATE INSTRUCTIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- ( )
ALTITUDE 6,000 - 17,000 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - 60-170
AND - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - &
APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - AP
APPROACH CONTROL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- APC
AT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- @
(ATC) ADVISES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- CA
(ATC) CLEARS OR CLEARED - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- C
(ATC) REQUESTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- CR
BACK COURSE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- BC
BEARING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- BR
BEFORE (REACHING,PASSING) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- >
BELOW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - BLO
BELOW (ALTITUDE - HUNDREDS OF FEET) - - - - - - - - - -
- - -
CENTER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
CTR
CLEARED AS FILED - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - CAF
CLEARED TO LAND - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - L
CLIMB TO (ALTITUDE - HUNDREDS OF FEET) - - - - - - - - - - - -
CONTACT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - CT
CONTACT APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - CAP
CONTACT (DENVER) APPROACH CONTROL - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(den
CONTACT (DENVER) CENTER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- (DEN
COURSE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- CRS
CROSS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - X
CRUISE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
DELAY INDEFINITE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - DLI
DEPART - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - DP
DEPARTURE CONTROL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
DPC
DESCEND TO (ALTITUDE - HUNDREDS OF FEET) - - - - - - - - - -
DIRECT
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - DR
DIRECTION
(BOUND)
EASTBOUND - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - EB
WESTBOUND - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - WB
NORTHBOUND - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - NB
SOUTHBOUND - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SB
INBOUND - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - IB
OUTBOUND - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - OB
DME FIX (MILE) - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
EACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - EA
ENTER CONTROL AREA - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - -
ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - ETA
EXPECT - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - EX
EXPECT APPROACH CLEARANCE - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - EAC
EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - EFC
FAN MARKER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - FM
FINAL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - F
FLIGHT LEVEL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- FL
FLIGHT PLANNED ROUTE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- FPR
FOR FURTHER CLEARANCE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - FFC
FOR FURTHER HEADINGS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- FFH
FROM - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- FR
HEADING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- HDG
HOLD (DIRECTION) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- H-W
HOLDING PATTERN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -
ILS APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ILS
INITIAL APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I
INTERSECTION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - XN
JOIN OR INTERCEPT AIRWAY/JET ROUTE/TRACK OR COURSE - - - - - -
LEFT TURN
AFTER TAKEOFF - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
LOCATOR OUTER
MARKER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - LOM
MAINTAIN OR
MAGNETIC - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - M
MAINTAIN VFR
CONDITIONS ON TOP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VFR
MIDDLE COMPASS
LOCATOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ML
MIDDLE MARKER
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - MM
NONDIRECTIONAL
BEACON APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - NDB
OUT OF (LEAVE)
CONTROL AREA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
OUTER MARKER - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - OM
OVER (STATION) - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - OKC
ON COURSE - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - OC
PRECISION RADAR APPROACH - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PAR
PROCEDURE TURN - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PT
RADAR VECTOR - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - RV
RADIAL (080° RADIAL) - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 080R
REMAIN WELL TO LEFT SIDE - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - LS
REMAIN WELL TO RIGHT SIDE - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - RS
REPORT CROSSING - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - RX
REPORT DEPARTING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - RD
REPORT LEAVING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - RL
REPORT ON COURSE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - R-CRS
REPORT OVER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - RO
REPORT PASSING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - RP
REPORT REACHING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - RR
REPORT STARTING PROCEDURE TURN - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - RSPT
REVERSE COURSE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- RC
RIGHT TURN AFTER TAKEOFF - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
RUNWAY (NUMBER) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
RY18
SQUAWK - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SQ
STANDBY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
STBY
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SI
SURVEILLANCE RADAR APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ASR
TAKEOFF (DIRECTION) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOWER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Z
UNTIL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - U
UNTIL ADVISED (BY) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - UA
UNTIL FURTHER ADVISED - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
UFA
VIA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- VIA
VICTOR (AIRWAY NUMBER) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- V14
VISUAL APPROACH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - VA
VOR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -
VORTAC - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
WHILE
IN CONTROL AREA - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
EXAMPLE
An example of a clearance written in shorthand:
CAF M RY HDG RV V18 SQ 0700 DPC 120.4
Translated it reads: (Aircraft number), cleared as filed, maintain runway
heading for radar vector to Victor 18, squawk 0700 just before departure,
departure control frequency - 120.4.
Supplementary Reference Material
Persons studying for the instrument rating, as well as qualified
instrument rated pilots, will find the publications and materials listed below
to be useful in augmenting their knowledge of instrument flying. In addition to
these, there are many excellent textbooks, charts, and other reference materials
available from commercial publishers.
Advisory Circulars and Flight Information Publications
ADVISORY CIRCULARS
00-6A - Aviation Weather
Provides an
up-to-date and expanded text for pilots and other flight operations personnel
whose interest in meteorology is primarily in its application to flying. (Supt.
Docs.)
00-45B - Aviation Weather Services
Supplements AC 00-6A, Aviation
Weather, in that it explains the weather service in general and the use and
interpretation of reports, forecasts, weather maps, and prognostic charts in
detail. It is an excellent source of study for pilot certification examinations.
(Supt. Docs.)
61-8D - Instrument Rating Written Test Guide
Reflects the current
operating procedures and techniques in a background setting appropriate for
applicants preparing for the Instrument Pilot Airplane and Instrument Pilot
Helicopter written tests. (Supt. Docs.)
61-56A - Flight Test Guide - Instrument Pilot Airplane
Assists the
applicant and the instructor in preparing for the flight test for the Instrument
Pilot Airplane Rating. (Supt. Docs.)
61-64A - Flight Test Guide - Instrument Pilot Helicopter
Assists
the applicant and the instructor in preparing for the Instrument Pilot
Helicopter Rating. (Supt. Docs.)
91-23A - Pilot's Weight and Balance Handbook
Provides an easily
understood text on aircraft weight and balance for pilots who need to appreciate
the importance of weight and balance control for safety of flight. Progresses
from an explanation of basic fundamentals to the complete application of weight
and balance principles in large aircraft operations. (Supt. Docs.)
In addition, the following Advisory Circulars pertain to areas of
knowledge listed in the "Study Outline" and are available from FAA free of
charge: 00-24A, 20-32B, 60-4, 60-6A, 91-8A {Canceled by AC 61-107 - Ed.}, and
91-25A.
FLIGHT INFORMATION
Airman's Information Manual (AIM) Basic Flight Information and ATC
Procedures. Issued semi-annually, January and July.
Graphic Notices
and Supplemental Data. Issued quarterly.
Notices to Airmen (Class II).
Issued every 14 days.
Descriptions of the contents, source of supply,
prices and stock numbers where applicable, for all Advisory Circulars and the
other flight information publications listed above, are contained in AC 00-2,
Advisory Circular Checklist available free of charge from:
U.S.
Department of Transportation
Publications Section, M-443.1
Washington, D.C. 20590
IFR and VFR Pilot Exam-o-Grams
These brief instructional aids are
prepared on subject areas in which applicants for airman written examinations
have shown a lack of knowledge. They are an excellent media for providing
guidance information to applicants preparing for the various written tests.
Exam-O-Grams may be obtained from:
Superintendent of
Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C.
20402.
FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FARs)
Part 1. Definitions and
Abbreviations.
Part 61. Certification: Pilots and Flight Instructors.
Part 91. General Operating and Flight Rules.
Part 95. IFR
Altitudes.
Part 97. Standard Instrument Approach Procedures.
Federal Aviation Regulations are sold by the Superintendent of
Documents. AC 00-44, Status of Federal Aviation Regulations, lists the FAR
Parts, their Changes, prices, stock numbers, and ordering information. AC 00-44
is available free of charge from:
U.S. Department of Transportation
Publications Section,
M-443.1
Washington, D.C. 20590
If you wish to be placed on the free mail list to receive revised
copies of either AC 00-2 or AC 00-44, send your name and address to:
U.S. Department of Transportation
Distribution Requirements
Section, M-482.2
Washington, D.C. 20590
Aeronautical Charts and Airport/Facility Directory
Enroute Low and
High Altitude Charts. These charts provide necessary aeronautical information
for enroute instrument navigation in the established airway structure.
Area Charts. These charts are part of the Enroute Low Altitude Chart
series. They furnish terminal data on a larger scale in congested areas.
Instrument Approach Procedures Charts. Each of these charts depict an
instrument approach procedure, including all related data, and the airport
diagram.
Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs). These charts are
collated in two booklets, "East" and "West." They are designed for use with
Enroute Low and High Altitude and Area Charts. They furnish pilots departure
routing clearance in graphic and textual form.
Standard Terminal
Arrival Routes (STARs). These charts are collated in one booklet and are
designed for use with Enroute Low and High Altitude Charts. They furnish pilots
preplanned instrument flight rules (IFR) air traffic control arrival route
procedures in graphic and textual form. The National Ocean Survey publishes and
distributes the Airport/Facility Directory and aeronautical charts of the United
States. Charts for foreign areas are published by the U.S. Air Force
Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) and are sold to civil users by
the National Ocean Survey.
A "Catalog of Aeronautical Charts and
Related Publications," listing their prices and instructions for ordering, may
be obtained free on request from:
Department of Commerce
National Ocean Survey
Distribution Division (C-44)
Riverdale, Maryland 20840
Orders for the Airport/Facility Directory and for specific charts or
publications should be accompanied by check or money order made payable to, NOS,
Department of Commerce.
Study Outline for the Instrument Pilot Written Test
This study outline covers the areas of aeronautical knowledge which
pertain to Instrument Pilot Written Tests. The outline expands the general
aeronautical knowledge requirements set forth in Federal Aviation Regulations
Part 61, and is based on airman activity for flight under Instrument Flight
Rules.
REFERENCE CODE:
AC - Advisory Circular
AW - Aviation
Weather (AC 00-6A)
AWS - Aviation Weather Services (AC 00-45B)
AIM - Airman's Information Manual
AFD - Airport/Facility
Directory
NOTAM - Notices to Airmen
EOG - IFR Exam-O-Grams
IFH - Instrument Flying Handbook (AC 61-27C)
BHH - Basic
Helicopter Handbook (AC 61-13B)
IAPC - Instrument Approach Procedure
Charts
PHB - Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (AC 61-23B)
I. FLIGHT PLANNING
A. Certificates and Ratings
1.
Requirements for certificates and ratings (61.3)
2. Eligibility for
instrument rating (61.65)
3. Where instrument rating required
(61.3(e), 91.97 {§ 91.97 recodified to § 91.135})
4. Recency of
experience (61.57)
B. Preflight Action for Flight
1.
Familiarization with all available information (91.5 {§ 91.5 recodified to §
91.103}; EOG-31; AFD)
2. Fuel requirements (91.23 {§ 91.23 recodified
to § 91.167})
C. Preflight Action for Aircraft (EOG-31)
1.
Responsibility for airworthiness (91.29 {§ 91.29 recodified to § 91.7})
2. Equipment required
Instruments and equipment
(91.33 {§ 91.33 recodified to § 91.205})
Transponder (91.24 {§
91.24 recodified to § 91.215}, 91.90 {§ 91.90 recodified to § 91.131})
ELT (91.52 {§ 91.52 recodified to § 91.207})
3.
Tests and inspections
VOR (91.25 {§ 91.25 recodified to §
91.171}; EOG-22; AIM)
Altimeter system (91.170 {§ 91.170
recodified to § 91.415})
Transponder (91.177)
Aircraft (91.169 {§ 91.169 recodified to § 91.409})
4. Portable
electronic devices (91.19 {§ 91.19 recodified to § 91.21})
D. Flight
Plan (AIM)
1. When required (91.97 {§ 91.97 recodified to § 91.135},
91.115 {§ 91.115 recodified to § 91.173})
2. Information required
(91.83 {§ 91.83 recodified to § 91.153})
3. Alternate airport
requirements (91.83 {§ 91.83 recodified to § 91.153})
E. Route
Planning
1. Preferred routes (AFD); SIDs and STARs; Enroute Charts
2. Airport/Facility Directory
3. NOTAM
4. FDC
NOTAMs (NOTAM)
5. Special Notices (NOTAM, AFD)
6. Area
Navigation Routes (NOTAM)
7. Direct Routes (AIM, Airspace; 91.119 {§
91.119 recodified to § 91.177}, 91.121(b) {§ 91.121 recodified to § 91.179})
8. Restrictions to Enroute Nav. Aids (AFD)
9. Substitute
Route Structure (EOG-39)
F. Flight Planning (Ch. XIII-IFH)
1. Wind correction angle - heading
2. GS
3. ETE/ETA
4. Fuel estimates
G. Aircraft Performance (Aircraft Owner's
Handbook; VFR EOG-33; EOG-32)
1. Takeoff distance
2. Climb
performance
3. Cruise performance (VFR EOG-38)
4. Fuel
flow
5. Landing performance
6. Airspeed: IAS, CAS, EAS,
TAS
7. Placards and instrument markings
8. Hovering
H. Aircraft Operating Limitations (documents in aircraft, AC 60-6A)
1. Weight and balance (EOG-21; AC 91-23A)
2. Instrument
limit markings and placards (91.31 {§ 91.31 recodified to § 91.9})
3.
Maximum safe crosswind (VFR EOG-27)
4. Turbulent air penetration
I. Aircraft Systems (Ch. IV-IFH)
1. Pitot-static system
(EOG-10; IFH)
2. Vacuum/gyroscopic (EOG-24)
3.
Electric/gyroscopic
4. Compass
J. Fundamentals of Weather
1. Composition of the atmosphere (Ch. I-AW)
2. Temperature
(Ch. 2-AW)
3. Pressure (Ch. 3-AW)
4. Circulation (Ch.
4-AW)
5. Moisture (Ch. 5-AW)
6. Stability and wind (Ch.
6-AW)
7. Clouds (Ch. 7-AW)
8. Air masses and fronts (Ch.
8-AW)
9. Turbulence (Ch. 9-AW)
K. IFR Weather Hazards
1. Icing (Ch. 10-AW)
2. Thunderstorms (Ch. 11-AW; AIM)
3. Fog and obstructions to vision (Ch. 12-AW)
L. Aviation
Weather Observations and Reports
1. Aviation weather reports (SA)
(AWS-2)
2. Pilot weather reports (PIREPs, UA) (AWS-3)
3.
Radar weather reports (RAREPs) (AWS-3) Radar summary chart AWS-7)
4.
Surface analysis (AWS-5)
5. Weather depiction chart (AWS-6)
6. Upper wind chart (AWS-9)
7. Freezing level chart
(AWS-10)
8. Stability chart (AWS-11)
9. Constant pressure
charts (AWS-13)
M. Aviation Weather Forecasts
1. Terminal
(FT) (AWS-4; EOG-5)
2. Area (FA) (AWS-4; EOG-5)
3. Winds
and temperatures aloft (FD) (AWS-4) and chart (AWS-9)
4. Severe
weather (AWS-4), Hurricane advisories (WH); convective outlook (AC); Weather
Watch (WW); severe weather outlook chart (AWS-12)
5. TWEB route
forecast and synopsis (AWS-4)
6. Inflight advisories (WS, WA, WAC)
(AWS-4)
7. Prognostic charts: Surface (AWS-8); Significant Weather
(AWS-8); Constant Pressure (AWS-14); Tropopause and Wind Shear (AWS-15)
N. Weather Tables and Conversion Graphs (AWS-16)
1. Icing
intensities
2. Turbulence intensities
3. Locations of
probable turbulence
4. Standard temperature, speed, and pressure
conversions
5. Density altitude
O. Weather Facilities
1. FSS weather service (AFD; EOG-19), Telephone numbers (AFD), Remote
weather radar display (AFD), Scheduled weather broadcast (AFD)
2.
ATIS (AIM)
3. Weather Service Forecast Offices (AIM); TWEB, PATWAS
(AFD)
II. DEPARTURE
A. Authority and Limitations of Pilot
1.
Pilot in command (91.3, 91.4 {§ 91.4 recodified to § 91.5}, 91.67 {§ 91.67
recodified to § 91.113}, 91.75 {§ 91.75 recodified to § 91.123}, 91.87(h) {§
91.87 recodified to § 91.129})
2. Emergency action (92.3(b) {§ 92.3
does not exist}), Deviation from rules
3. Required reports, Emergency
deviation (91.3(c), 91.75(c) {§ 91.75 recodified to § 91.123}), Malfunction of
equipment (91.33(c) {§ 91.33 recodified to § 91.205}, 91.129 {§ 91.129
recodified to § 91.187})
B. Flight Plan
1. Where to file
(AFD)
2. When to file (AIM - Flight Plan)
C. Departure
Clearance (AIM - Departures; EOG-35)
1. "Cleared as filed"
2. Amended clearance
3. Pretaxi clearance procedure
4.
Clearance delivery (AFD)
D. Taxi and Takeoff Procedures (AIM -
Departure and Airport Operation)
1. Taxi limits (AIM; EOG-26, 28)
2. ATC control sequence (AIM)
3. Airport advisory service
(AIM; AFD)
4. ATIS (AIM; AFD)
E. Departure Procedures (AIM)
1. Obstruction clearance minimums (approach chart book)
2.
Departure control procedures (nonradar)
3. Departure control
procedures (radar)
4. SIDs
5. Speed adjustments
6. Terminal area limitations
F. VOR Accuracy Check (AIM; EOG-22; 91.25
{§ 91.25 recodified to § 91.171})
1. VOT (AFD, L-chart legend)
2. VOR ground checkpoints (AFD)
3. VOR airborne
checkpoints (AFD)
4. VOR dual receiver check
G. Pretakeoff
Instrument Check (IFH; AC 91-46)
1. Prestart instrument indications
2. Taxi test
H. Transponder (EOG-25; AIM)
1.
Operation
2. Switching code
3. Emergency use
I.
Airport Facilities (AFD, NOTAM, Charts)
1. Service (AFD, NOTAM)
2. Runways (EOG-26, 28; AIM)
3. Airport lighting (AIM;
EOG-33)
4. Communications (AFD)
J. FSS Facility (AIM;
EOG-39; chart legend)
1. Flight plan service
2. Traffic
advisories (AFD)
3. Communications (AFD)
4. Weather
advisories (AFD; AWS-1)
K. Departure Control Facility
1.
Communications (AFD; IAPC)
2. Geographical area
III. ENROUTE
A. Enroute Limitations (AIM)
1. Altitude
limitations (91.119 {§ 91.119 recodified to § 91.177}; EOG-8): MEA, MOCA, MCA,
MRA, MAA
2. Cruising altitudes (91.121 {§ 91.121 recodified to §
91.179}, 91.109 {§ 91.109 recodified to § 91.159})
3. Courses to be
flown (91.123 {§ 91.123 recodified to § 91.181}, 91.67 {§ 91.67 recodified to §
91.113})
4. Altimeter settings (91.81 {§ 91.81 recodified to §
91.121})
5. Positive Control Airspace (91.97 {§ 91.97 recodified to §
91.135})
6. Special Use Airspace (91.95 {§ 91.95 recodified to §
91.133}; AIM; Enroute Chart)
B. Enroute Procedures (AIM; Ch. XI-IFH)
1. Radar environment - vectors, reporting, handoffs
2.
Nonradar environment - reporting, handoffs
3. Altitude: cruise,
maintain, climb, descend, VFR on top
4. Delays: clearance limits,
holding
5. Securing weather info (AWS-1)
C. ATC Clearances
1. Phraseology (Ch. IX-IFH; AIM; EOG-11, 34, 35)
2.
Responses and readbacks (AIM; 91.125 {§ 91.125 recodified to § 91.183})
D. Oxygen Requirements (91.32 {§ 91.32 recodified to § 91.211})
1. Pilot and crew requirements
2. Passenger requirements
E. Emergencies (AIM; EOG-2)
1. Difficultly with
communications
2. Malfunction of equipment
3. LOC (EOG-7
& 14)
4. RNAV (EOG 30)
5. Lost
6. Lost
communications (91.127 {§ 91.127 recodified to § 91.185}; EOGs 36, 37, 38)
7. Malfunction reports (91.129 {§ 91.129 recodified to § 91.187},
91.33(e) {§ 91.33 recodified to § 91.205})
8. Deviation from
clearance (91.75(c) {§ 91.75 recodified to § 91.123})
F. Radio
Orientation (Ch. VIII-IFH)
1. VOR (EOG-7 & 14)
2. NDB
(EOG-23)
G. Establishing Radio Fixes and Waypoints (Ch. VIII-IFH)
1. VOR radials
2. VOR-DME (Ch. VII-IFH; AC 90-62; AC
170-3B)
3. ADF (EOG-23)
4. ADF-VOR/LOC
5. RNAV
(EOG-30)
H. Enroute Computer Operations
1. GS
2.
ETE/ETA
3. Altitude or speed conversion
4. Fuel
I. Attitude Instrument Flying (Ch. V and VI-IFH; AC 91-43)
1. Interpretation of flight instruments
2. Aircraft control: pitch,
bank, power
3. Basic maneuvers: straight and level, climbs and
descent, turns (EOG-18)
4. Unusual attitudes
5. Flight
patterns
J. Unusual Flight Conditions
1. Thunderstorms (AC
00-24; page 105-AW)
2. Structural icing (Ch. 10-AW)
3.
Induction icing (Ch. 10-AW; PHB)
4. Use of anti/deicing equipment
5. Frost
6. Clear air turbulence
K. Radio
Navigation Facilities (Ch. VIII-IFH; AIM)
1. VOR/VORTAC
2.
NDB
3. LOC
4. DF
5. RADAR
L. Airway
Route System (Enroute Chart Legend; AIM; EOG-8)
1. Victor/jet airway
limits
2. Route identification: military, substitute, unusable
3. Altitude limits: MOCA, MEA, MRA, MCA, MAA
4. Reporting
points: compulsory, noncompulsory
5. Fixes, waypoints
6.
Geographical limit: VOR changeover points, altimeter setting boundary, time zone
boundary
7. Airspace designation
M. Special Use Airspace
(AIM, chart legends)
1. Prohibited area
2. Restricted area
3. Military operations area
4. Warning area
5.
Alert area - intensive student jet training area
N. ARTCC Facility
(Ch. XI-IFH; AIM)
1. ARTCC remote frequencies (Enroute Chart)
2. Geographical area of control (Enroute Chart)
3.
Advisories, services, assistance
O. Enroute Weather Services (AFD)
1. EFAS (AWS-1)
2. TWEB (AWS-1)
3. ARTCC
significant weather advisories
P. Fixed-Wing Aerodynamic Factors (Ch.
III-IFH; AC 61-23B)
1. Aerodynamic forces
2. Straight and
level
3. Turns
4. Climbs
5. Descents
6. Stalls
Q. Rotary-Wing Aerodynamic Factors (BHH)
1.
Vibrations (Ch. 2)
2. Dissymmetry of lift (Ch. 2)
3.
Translation (Ch. 2)
4. Rotor disc-loading, coning, and flapping (Ch.
9)
5. Settling with power (Ch. 9)
6. Ground resonance (Ch.
9)
7. Speed limitations (Ch. 9)
8. Autorotation
particulars (Ch. 11)
9. Factors affecting performance (Ch. 11)
R. Physiological Factors (Ch. II-IFH; AIM)
1. Physiologic
altitude effects: hypoxia, aerotitis, aerosinusitis (AC 91-8A {Canceled by AC
61-107 - Ed.})
2. Hypoxic effects: alcohol, hyperventilation, drugs,
carbon monoxide (AC 20-32B)
3. Sensations of instrument flying (AC
60-4)
4. Spatial disorientation (AC 60-4)
IV. ARRIVAL
A. Approach Control (AIM; Ch. XII-IFH)
1.
Radar control: STARs, Vectors, approach clearances
2. Non-radar
control
3. Aircraft speed (91.70 {§ 91.70 recodified to § 91.117})
4. Procedure turns/holding patterns
5. Visual and contact
approaches
B. Holding Procedures (AIM)
1. Holding pattern
entry
2. Shuttle
3. Changing altitude
4. Timing
5. Adjustments and corrections
C. Precision Approaches (AC
90-1A; IFH; AIM)
1. Initial approach/procedure turn (91.116(h) {§
91.116 recodified to § 91.175})
2. Vectors to final approach
(91.116(f) {§ 91.116 recodified to § 91.175})
3. Intermediate
approach
4. Final approach
5. Glide slope
6.
Decision height (91.117(b) {§ 91.117 was deleted when part 91 was recodified})
7. Inoperative components (91.117(c) {§ 91.117 was deleted when part
91 was recodified})
8. Reports
D. Non-Precision Approach
(AC 90-1A; AIM)
1. Initial approach/procedure turn (91.116(h) {§
91.116 recodified to § 91.175})
2. Vectors to final approach
(91.116(f) {§ 91.116 recodified to § 91.175})
3. Intermediate
approach
4. Final approach
5. Minimum descent altitude
(91.117(b) {§ 91.117 was deleted when part 91 was recodified})
6.
Inoperative components (91.117(c) {§ 91.117 was deleted when part 91 was
recodified})
7. Reports
E. Missed Approach (91.117(b) {§
91.117 was deleted when part 91 was recodified}; AC 90-1A; AIM)
1.
Precision approach
2. Non-precision
3. Loss of visual cues
4. Low approach (practice approaches)
F. Landing Procedures
(AIM)
1. Noncontrolled airport (91.89 {§ 91.89 recodified to §
91.127})
2. Controlled airport (91.87 {§ 91.87 recodified to §
91.129})
3. Landing minimums (91.116(b) {§ 91.116 recodified to §
91.175}, 97.3(d-1))
4. Close flight plan (91.83 {§ 91.83 recodified
to § 91.153})
G. Logging of Flight Time
1. Instrument
flight time (61.51(4))
2. Conditions for simulated instrument flight
(91.21 {§ 91.21 recodified to § 91.109})
3. Information required
(61.51(4)); Instrument approaches; Safety pilot
4. Pilot in command
(61.51(2))
H. Radio Orientation on Approach (Ch. VIII-IFH)
1. Relation to LOC on front and back course (Ch. VII-IFH; EOG-7)
2.
Glide slope (Ch. VII-IFH)
3. LOC and glide slope (EOG-7); Ch.
VII-IFH)
4. Marker beacons (Ch. VII-IFH)
5. Compass
locators (EOG-23)
6. NDB (EOG-23)
7. VOR/VORTAC (EOG-7)
8. LOC type; LDA, SDF (AIM)
I. Wake Turbulence (AIM; AC
90-23D)
1. Landing hazards
2. Takeoff hazards
3. Inflight hazards
4. Wake turbulence theory
J. Terminal
Area (IAPC; AFD)
1. Approach control facility: frequencies, area
2. FSS (AIM): airport advisories, flight plan service, weather
service
K. Instrument Approach Procedure Chart - Planview (AC 90-1A;
IAPC legend)
1. Facility frequencies and services
2.
Procedural tracks
3. Fixes and markers
4. Obstructions
5. Special use airspace
6. Radio aids
7.
Minimum altitudes
L. Instrument Approach Procedure Chart - Profile (AC
90-1A; IAPC legend)
1. Altitude limits
2. Descent
pattern/glide slope
3. Facilities/fixes
M. Instrument
Approach Procedure Chart Aerodrome Sketch (AC 90-1A; IAPC legend)
1.
Runway configuration and specifications
2. Approach light systems
3. Elevations: Obstacles, TDZE, and aerodrome
4. Airport
taxi chart
N. Instrument Approach Procedure Chart - Minimums Section
(AC 90-1A; IAPC legend)
1. Aircraft category
2. DH/MDA
3. HAT
4. HAA
5. Minimum visibility: miles/RVR
6. IFR takeoff minimums and departure procedures
7. IFR
alternate minimums
8. Civil RADAR instrument approach minimums
O. Approach Facilities (AIM; IFH; Chart Legends)
1. ILS
2. LDA
3. SDF
4. VOR/VORTAC
5. NDB
6. Marker beacons, compass locators
7. VASI (91.87(d)(3)
{§ 91.87 recodified to § 91.129})
Instrument Flight Instructor Lesson Guide
(Airplanes)
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
MIKE MONRONEY AERONAUTICAL CENTER
FAA ACADEMY
Preface
To the
Instrument Flight Instructor
The Instrument Flight Instructor Lesson
Guide has been prepared for use with the FAA Instrument Flying Handbook, AC
61-27C. Although the guide deals with basic instrument flying in airplanes, the
instructor can modify it for use in helicopter instrument training. The
seventeen lessons on Attitude Instrument Flying are arranged in what is
considered to be a logical learning sequence. To ensure steady progress, teach
the course lesson-by-lesson, and be sure the student has mastered each before
advancing to the next. Lessons may be combined when giving refresher training.
As all experienced instrument instructors know, the student will learn more
rapidly during the early stage of instrument training if a considerable part of
the time is spent "open hood." The student is thus allowed to associate aircraft
attitude relative to outside visual references with the indications of the
various flight instruments individually and in combination. This teaching
procedure makes it clear that the pilot uses exactly the same control techniques
during visual and instrument flight: Remember, the largest single learning
factor in Attitude Instrument Flying is that of interpreting the flight
instruments to determine the attitude of the aircraft.
To the Student Instrument Pilot
At the beginning of your instrument
flight training, your instructor will brief you on the concept of Attitude
Instrument Flying and explain each of the flight instruments used in Pitch
Control, Bank Control, and Power Control. Your instructor will point out
similarities each instrument has to outside references and explain the limits
and errors inherent in each instrument. After a thorough demonstration, you will
practice using each instrument individually and in combination with other
instruments. This procedure is followed for the first three lessons on Pitch
Control, Bank Control, and Power Control in level flight. After a short time,
you will be making a logical cross-check and not merely scanning the
instruments. Approximately 6 hours of flight time plus the necessary ground
school is usually required to cover the first three basic lessons. Your
instructor will monitor your progress closely during this early training to
guide you in dividing your attention properly. The importance of this "division
of attention" or "cross-check" cannot be emphasized too much. This, and proper
instrument interpretation, enables the instrument pilot to accurately visualize
the aircraft's attitude at all times. To properly understand this guide, the
terms "Primary Instrument" and "Supporting Instrument" must be clearly
understood. For clarification of these terms, refer to Chapter V of the FAA
Instrument Flying Handbook AC 61-27C.
NOTE: The instrument maneuvers presented in this guide are based on an
airplane equipped with a turn coordinator. If the airplane flown has a turn
needle, the descriptions apply if "turn needle" is substituted for "miniature
aircraft of the turn coordinator." Power settings and airplane performance
figures used in this guide are for illustrative purposes only. Exact power
settings and performance information must be obtained experimentally or from
performance charts for each airplane flown.
Lesson 1
Cockpit Check
1. Publications. Enroute Navigation Charts, Appropriate Pilot's
Handbooks, Terminal Area Charts, Approach Charts, Computer, and Flight Log.
2. Suction Gauge or Electrical System. For suction-driven gyro
instruments, be sure the suction gauge is within prescribed limits. For
electrically-driven instruments, check generators and inverters for proper
operation.
3. Pitot Head. Cover removed and heat checked.
4.
Airspeed Indicator. Check reading, should be zero. Check calibration card.
5. Heading Indicator. Uncaged, if applicable. Checked against a known
heading, and operating properly
6. Attitude Indicator. Uncaged if
applicable. Checked and operating properly. Set miniature aircraft.
7.
Altimeter. Set to current altimeter setting. Check for error.
8. Turn
Coordinator. Miniature aircraft operating properly. Ball moves freely in the
race.
9. Vertical-Speed Indicator. Should indicate zero. If it doesn't
and is not adjustable, interpret ground indication as zero.
10.
Magnetic Compass. Bowl full of fluid. Card moves freely. Checked against known
heading.
11. Clock. Operating and set to correct time.
12.
Carburetor Heat. Check for operation and return to cold position.
13.
Engine Instruments. Check for proper markings and readings.
14. Radio
Equipment. Checked for proper operation.
15. Trim and Throttle
Friction. Trim set for takeoff and throttle friction adjusted.
16.
De-Icing and Anti-Icing Equipment. Check operation.
Pitch Control
1.
Attitude Indicator
a. Adjust miniature aircraft for level flight at
normal cruise.
b. Demonstrate similarity between the natural horizon
and the horizon bar by placing the nose of the aircraft first above the horizon,
then below it.
c. Discuss the limits of operation.
d.
Demonstrate why the attitude indicator must be caged and uncaged in level flight
(if a caging device is available). Stress the importance of fully uncaging the
instrument.
e. Reliable pitch attitude is indicated within
approximately 30° in climbs and dives. In excess of 30°, the horizon bar is no
longer visible or may lag. The extreme limits vary with instrument design.
f. Acceleration and deceleration error.
(1) Increase power
rapidly from low to high - show loss of altitude while maintaining a level
attitude on the attitude indicator.
(2) Reduce power rapidly from
high to low - show gain of altitude while maintaining a level attitude on the
attitude indicator.
(3) Hold altitude during power changes - show
that the bar moves down on acceleration and moves up on deceleration.
g. Comparison of movement of the miniature aircraft and the nose of
the aircraft. The instrument gives a direct indication of pitch.
(1)
Adjust the miniature aircraft with the wings exactly centered on the horizon
bar.
(2) Change pitch attitude to 1/2 bar climb - student compares
the movement of the aircraft's nose to the actual horizon.
(3) Change
pitch attitude to 1/2 bar descent - student compares to actual horizon.
(4) Emphasize smooth control pressures and that 1/2 bar is
recommended for small corrections.
h. Student practice.
(1)
Maintaining level flight, keeping wings centered on horizon bar.
(2)
Making small pitch changes not to exceed 1/2 bar width.
(3) Place
aircraft in moderate climbs and descents and have student return to level
flight.
(4) Stress importance of smoothness and of not
overcontrolling.
2. Altimeter
a. Constant altitude.
(1)
Maintain straight and level flight at a constant power setting. Point out that
pitch attitude must also remain constant.
(2) Raise the nose of the
aircraft until the altimeter indicates a climb - show the relationship between
increased pitch attitude and gain of altitude.
(3) Lower the nose of
the aircraft until the altimeter indicates a descent show the relationship
between decreased pitch and loss of altitude.
b. Determining pitch
attitude by the altimeter.
(1) Place the miniature aircraft well
above the horizon bar. Point out the rapid change of the altimeter and the large
change of pitch attitude shown on the attitude indicator.
(2) Make
small changes in pitch attitude - show slow change in altitude. Visualize the
approximate change in pitch attitude by interpolating the rate of altimeter
movement.
c. Lag in the altimeter.
(1) Make an abrupt pitch
change and point out the momentary lag in the altimeter.
(2) Make
small, smooth pitch changes and point out that the altimeter, for practical
purposes, has no lag.
d. Proper technique for correcting altimeter
movement.
(1) Change pitch attitude to stop altimeter.
(2)
Change pitch attitude to return smoothly to desired altitude.
e.
Cross-check (division of attention) between altimeter and attitude indicator.
(1) The cross-check is simple. Maintain level flight on the attitude
indicator with frequent reference to the altimeter to determine that the
altitude is being maintained. If an error is noted, correct it by making an
appropriate correction on the attitude indicator. Guard against over
controlling.
(2) During level flight, the altimeter is primary for
pitch and all changes in pitch are made so as to maintain a constant altitude.
f. Student practice.
(1) Maintaining a constant altitude.
(2) Maintaining level flight by use of the attitude indicator and
altimeter.
(3) Lose or gain 50 feet by changing pitch attitude not
more than 1/2 bar (emphasize small pitch changes).
(4) Return to the
original altitude, using the above technique.
(5) Repeat this
exercise until the student has acquired the proper cross-check and control
technique.
3. Vertical-Speed Indicator
Point out that the
instrument reads zero when a constant altitude is maintained. The vertical-speed
indicator is used both as a trend and a rate instrument.
a. Use of the
vertical-speed indicator as a trend instrument. Observe the vertical-speed
indicator and altimeter as small pitch changes are made. Note that the
vertical-speed indicator shows a trend up or down before the altimeter shows a
climb or descent.
b. Use of the vertical-speed indicator as a rate
instrument in climbs and descents.
(1) Establish a small attitude
change and allow the vertical-speed indicator to "settle down" on a rate. The
attitude change will give a particular vertical speed which will vary with
different aircraft.
(2) Caution the student not to "chase the
needle," but to make small pitch changes, then wait for the needle to settle
down. As a demonstration, put the aircraft into a climb or descent. With the
needle of the vertical-speed indicator in motion, apply control pressures in the
opposite direction to stop the trend. Have the student note that when the
altimeter stops, the aircraft is passing through level flight attitude, and that
simultaneously, the needle of the vertical-speed indicator is stopping and
reversing its direction of movement.
c. Use of the vertical-speed
indicator to correct for deviations in altitude.
(1) Raise the nose
1/2 bar. With a pitch attitude change of this magnitude, the vertical-speed
indicator indicates a climb of about 200 feet per minute in low speed flight.
(Explain that the relation between the attitude-indicator and the vertical-speed
indicator depends on airspeed.)
(2) For altitude corrections of 100
feet or less, use no more than a 200 feet per minute rate of climb or descent. A
vertical speed in excess of this indicates overcontrolling.
(3) For
altitude corrections of more than 100 feet, make a correspondingly larger
correction.
(4) Lower the nose 1/2 bar. Show that the vertical-speed
indicator indicates a rate of descent of about 200 feet per minute.
d.
Cross-check of pitch instruments.
(1) Resume level flight.
Cross-check the attitude indicator, altimeter, and vertical-speed indicator to
detect any change in pitch attitude. Any deviation from zero by the vertical
speed indicator shows a need for a pitch change.
(2) Descend 50 feet
below the desired altitude, then enter a climb of 200 feet per minute and return
to the desired altitude.
(3) Climb 50 feet above the desired
altitude, then enter a descent of 200 feet per minute and return to the desired
altitude.
e. Student practice.
(1) Attitude control with
the vertical-speed indicator only.
(2) Attitude control with the
attitude indicator and the vertical-speed indicator.
(3) Attitude
control with the attitude indicator, vertical-speed indicator, and the
altimeter.
(4) Have the student climb 100 feet at a rate of 200 feet
per minute.
(5) Have student resume level flight, then descend at 200
feet per minute to the desired altitude.
(6) Cross-check altimeter,
attitude indicator, and vertical-speed indicator to maintain level flight.
(7) Stress proper corrective pressures when correcting altitude.
(8) Emphasize precision (correct small errors).
4. Airspeed
Indicator
a. Use of airspeed indicator to determine attitude.
(1) At constant power in level flight, point out that when altitude
is constant, airspeed remains constant.
(2) Make small changes in
pitch and point out slow changes in airspeed.
(3) Make extreme
changes in pitch and point out fast changes in airspeed.
(4) At
cruising airspeed in level flight, have student climb or dive aircraft. Point
out apparent lag. Explain that lag is caused by the time required for the
aircraft to accelerate or decelerate after pitch has been changed.
(5) Explain that there is no appreciable lag incorporated in the design of the
instrument.
b. Cross-check the attitude indicator, vertical-speed
indicator, and airspeed indicator. As each instrument is added to the
cross-check, the speed of the cross-check must be increased to afford adequate
coverage of all instruments. (NOTE: Encourage the use of peripheral vision.)
c. Student practice. With a constant power setting, hold constant
airspeed in level flight by use of:
(1) The airspeed indicator alone.
(2) All available pitch instruments.
5. Elevator Trim
a. Application of elevator trim in pitch control.
(1) Place
aircraft in level flight, out of trim.
(2) Point out pressures
required to maintain desired pitch attitude.
(3) Adjust trim to
relieve pressure - show that aircraft flies "hands off."
(4) In level
flight, change airspeed. Point out the necessity of first holding pressure and
relieving pressure with elevator trim.
b. Student practice. Use of
elevator trim in level flight.
(1) With all pitch instruments.
(2) Without the attitude indicator.
NOTE - The instructor should aid the student in rudder and bank control
throughout this lesson.
Lesson 2 - Bank Control
1. Attitude Indicator
a. Point out the similarity of the horizon bar to the natural horizon
while banking. The instrument gives a direct indication of bank.
(1)
Roll from one bank to another and point out the similarity of the apparent
movement of the miniature aircraft and the real aircraft. To aid the student's
understanding, tell him to imagine himself in the miniature aircraft.
(2) Point out the banking scale at the top of the instrument. Rolling from one
bank to another, show how the pointer indicates the degree of bank.
(3) If the aircraft is flying right-side-up, the bank indices will be next to
the reference marks on the case of the instrument.
(4) If the
aircraft is inverted, the bank indices will be at the bottom of the case
(non-tumbling instrument).
b. Demonstrate the banking limits of the
instrument.
c. Precession of the horizon bar. Make a steep turn of
180°. After returning to level flight at the completion of the turn, point out
that pitch and bank errors may be as much as 5°.
d. Caging and
uncaging (if a caging device is available).
(1) Cage and uncage in a
banked attitude - show error.
(2) Emphasize the importance of
uncaging the instrument in level flight.
(3) Stress the importance of
fully uncaging the instrument after caging it, otherwise its limits may be
greatly reduced.
e. Cross-check. Point out that while cross-checking
the attitude indicator, both pitch and bank should be checked at the same time.
f. Student practice.
(1) Bank control with the attitude
indicator alone.
(2) Occasionally place the aircraft in a bank and
have the student level the wings.
(3) Pitch and bank control using
all the pitch instruments and the attitude indicator for bank control.
2.
Heading Indicator
a. Banks and turns.
(1) In coordinated
flight, turning means banking. The heading indicator gives an indirect
indication of bank.
(2) Roll into a shallow bank. The heading
indicator moves slowly in the direction of the bank.
(3) Increase the
bank and point out the corresponding increase in the rate of turn on the heading
indicator.
b. Limits of the heading indicator.
(1) The
limits of the heading indicator vary with instrument design. Until recently,
these limits have generally been 55 degrees of pitch and bank. If the limits of
the instrument are exceeded, it gives an unreliable indication.
(2)
Due to precession caused by internal friction, the instrument should be checked
at least every 15 minutes during flight and reset to the correct heading. An
error of 3 degrees in 15 minutes is acceptable for normal operation.
c. Correcting headings.
(1) When correcting a heading, do
not exceed in bank the number of degrees to be turned. For example, if the
heading error is 10°, do not exceed a 10° bank when correcting.
(2)
The bank should never exceed that required to produce a standard rate turn or a
maximum of 30°.
d. Cross-check. Include the heading indicator in the
cross-check to maintain straight-and-level flight. When available, the heading
indicator is always primary for bank in straight flight.
e. Student
practice.
(1) Maintaining straight flight with the heading indicator
alone.
(2) Maintaining straight flight by use of the heading
indicator and the attitude indicator.
(3) Maintaining straight and
level flight by the use of all pitch instruments together with the heading
indicator and attitude indicator of the bank group.
3. Turn Coordinator
(miniature aircraft)
a. When the miniature aircraft is level (proper
trim), it indicates that the airplane is flying straight with the wings level.
Demonstrate that the roll rate of the miniature aircraft is proportional to the
airplane's rate of roll. Also, point out that the miniature aircraft indicates
the airplane's rate of turn when the roll rate is reduced to zero.
b.
Roll from one turn to another. The miniature aircraft shows the roll rate of the
airplane.
c. Point out that when the airplane is banked in coordinated
flight, it is also turning. This turn is indicated by the miniature aircraft.
d. In straight-and-level unaccelerated flight, when the heading
indicator is not available, the magnetic compass is primary for bank, closely
supported by the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator.
e.
Referring to the attitude indicator, place the airplane in a very shallow bank
(approximately 2°) and point out the position of the miniature aircraft of the
turn coordinator. Point out the corresponding movement of the heading indicator.
f. Emphasize keeping the miniature aircraft level to maintain straight
flight.
4. Turn Coordinator (ball instrument)
a. Using turns of
approximately a standard rate, demonstrate slipping and skidding turns. Point
out that the ball on the low side of center indicates that the airplane's wing
is low relative to the position of the miniature aircraft.
b. Student
practice. Visual, then under the hood, emphasizing cross-check (division of
attention).
(1) Bank control using the turn coordinator.
(2) Maintaining straight-and-level flight with all pitch and bank instruments.
5. Rudder and Aileron Trim
a. Emphasize maintaining attitude and
trimming off pressures.
b. Demonstrate how the need for trim can be
determined by a proper interpretation of instrument indications.
c.
Make power changes and have the student maintain straight-and-level flight,
keeping the aircraft properly trimmed.
d. The cross-check for need of
trim should be continued throughout flight.
e. Trim technique -
partial panel and full panel.
(1) Partial panel - relax control
pressures in straight-and-level flight. If the miniature aircraft of the turn
coordinator indicates a turn, but the ball is centered, aileron trim is needed.
If the miniature aircraft and ball move simultaneously, rudder trim is needed.
(2) Full panel - relax control pressures in straight-and-level
flight. If the heading indicator shows a turn before a bank is shown on the
attitude indicator, rudder trim is needed. If a bank is shown on the attitude
indicator before a turn is shown on the heading indicator, aileron trim is
needed. Refer to the miniature aircraft and ball of the turn coordinator to
confirm this interpretation.
Lesson 3 - Power Control and Trim
1. Effect
of Power Changes
a. In level flight, increase power and point out that
the nose has a tendency to rise and yaw left. Hold forward elevator pressure to
maintain level flight and relieve the pressure with trim. The position of the
ball indicates the need for rudder trim.
b. In level flight, reduce
power and point out that the nose has a tendency to drop and yaw right. Hold
back pressure to maintain level flight. The position of the ball indicates the
need for rudder trim.
c. Increase and decrease power, demonstrating
that little banking tendency exists if proper rudder pressure and trim are
applied.
d. Student practice. Make large power changes and have the
student practice trim control in straight-and-level flight.
2. Airspeed
Changes
The terms Low Cruise, Normal Cruise, and High Cruise used in
this section refer to speeds which can be established for an airplane used in
instrument training or during actual instrument flight. Normal Cruise and High
Cruise are enroute speeds. Low Cruise is maintained during holding patterns and
the approach phase of an instrument flight. Airspeed changes should be practiced
first in a "clean" configuration, then as proficiency increases, while extending
the flaps and landing gear. Some of the performance figures and approximate
pitch attitudes for a representative general aviation single-engine-airplane
follow:
MP RPM MPH-(IAS) Approx. Pitch Att.
High Cruise ------------------- 23"
2300 160 1/2
bar low
Normal Cruise ----------------- 21"
2300 140 level
Low Cruise -------------------- 17"
2300 110 1/2
bar high
500 FPM Climb ----------------- 23"
2500 110 2
bars high
500 FPM Descent --------------- 13"
2500 110 1/2
bar low
Low Cruise - Gear Down -------- 22"
2500 110 1/2
bar high
500 FPM Climb - Gear Down ----- 25"
2500 110 2
bars high
500 FPM Descent - Gear Down --- 15"
2500 110 1/2
bar low
a. Decrease airspeed - from High Cruise to Normal Cruise or from High
Cruise or Normal Cruise to Low Cruise.
(1) Reduce manifold pressure 3
to 5 inches (or 200 to 300 RPM on an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller)
below power required for desired cruise. Stress smooth and accurate throttle
movement in all power changes. When the throttle is moved to the approximate
correct position, the manifold pressure gauge is included in the cross-check and
a final adjustment made. Re-emphasize the need for proper rudder and elevator
trim.
(2) Pitch must be changed to maintain a constant altitude as
airspeed changes. Remind student of acceleration and deceleration errors of the
attitude indicator.
(3) The manifold pressure gauge is the primary
power instrument while the airspeed is changing. As the airspeed approaches
desired cruise, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power. Power should
then be increased to the approximate setting that will maintain desired cruise
airspeed.
b. Increase airspeed - from Slow Cruise to Normal Cruise or
High Cruise, or from Normal Cruise to High Cruise. Increase power 3 to 5 inches
(or 200 to 300 RPM on an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller) above the power
required to maintain desired cruise. Trim. The manifold pressure gauge is
primary for power while the airspeed is changing. As desired cruise airspeed is
approached, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for power and the manifold
pressure is adjusted to maintain it. Trim.
3. Control of Altitude and
Airspeed in Straight-and-Level Flight
a. Altitude is maintained with
pitch control and airspeed is maintained with power control. The need for a
pitch or power change is indicated by a cross-check between the altimeter and
the airspeed indicator.
b. If the altitude is correct and the airspeed
is either high or low, change power to attain the desired airspeed. When the
altitude is low and the airspeed is high (or when the altitude is high and the
airspeed is low), only a pitch change may be needed to attain the desired
altitude and airspeed. When both altitude and airspeed are high or low, a change
in both pitch and power is needed.
4. Interpretation and Cross-Check of
Pitch, Bank, and Power Instruments in Straight-and-Level Flight
a. The
altimeter is primary for pitch; the heading indicator (or magnetic compass, if
the heading indicator is not available) is primary for bank; and the airspeed
indicator is primary for power control. During power changes, your cross-check
must be particularly efficient and accurate.
b. Student practice
changing airspeed in straight-and-level flight:
(1) With all
available pitch, bank, and power instruments.
(2) Without the heading
indicator.
(3) Without the heading indicator and attitude indicator.
Lesson 4 - Constant Airspeed Climbs and Descents
1. Climbs - Entry from
Normal Cruise Airspeed
a. Enter constant airspeed climb from normal
cruise airspeed.
b. As the climb power and climb pitch attitude are
established, the attitude indicator becomes primary for pitch at the approximate
climb attitude. At this time, the manifold pressure (or tachometer) is primary
for power. The vertical-speed indicator will show an immediate upward trend and
will stop on a rate appropriate to the stabilized airspeed and attitude. The
airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch when the airspeed stabilizes on a
constant value.
c. Emphasize trim as power and pitch are changed.
d. Demonstrate the use of the vertical-speed indicator as an aid in
maintaining a desired airspeed by adjusting the pitch attitude on the attitude
indicator to change the vertical-speed 200 feet per minute to gain or lose 5
knots in airspeed.
e. In climbs as well as in level flight, the
vertical-speed indicator is used as an aid in pitch control.
2. Level-off
from Climbs at Cruise Airspeed
a. Lead the altitude by approximately
ten percent of the vertical speed shown, i.e., for 500 feet per minute, use a
50-foot lead.
b. As the level-off is started, the altimeter becomes
primary for pitch.
c. Cross-check the attitude indicator, the
altimeter, and vertical-speed indicator.
d. Leave the power at
climbing power until the airspeed approaches normal cruise airspeed, adjusting
pitch as necessary to maintain altitude.
e. Emphasize trim.
3.
Student Practice.
Enter climbs from normal cruise airspeed and
level-off at normal cruise airspeed:
a. With all available
instruments.
b. Without the attitude indicator and heading indicator.
4. Climbs - Entry from Climb Airspeed
a. As the power is increased
to climb power, the airspeed indicator immediately becomes primary for pitch.
b. As power is increased, adjust the pitch attitude on the attitude
indicator to maintain a constant airspeed.
c. Use the relationship
between the airspeed and the vertical-speed for pitch control.
5. Level-Off
from Climbs at Climb Airspeed
a. Lead the altitude by approximately
ten percent of the vertical speed.
b. As the level-off is started, the
altimeter becomes primary for pitch.
c. Simultaneously lower pitch
attitude and reduce power to maintain altitude and airspeed.
d. Trim.
6. Student Practice.
Enter climbs from climb airspeed and level
off at climb airspeed:
a. With all available instruments.
b.
Without the attitude indicator and heading indicator.
7. Descents - Entry
a. Reduce power to descending power setting. Maintain altitude until
the airspeed approaches descending airspeed.
b. When the airspeed
approaches that desired, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch and
remains so throughout the descent. Adjust pitch attitude to maintain airspeed.
This establishes the descent.
c. Demonstrate the use of the
vertical-speed indicator as an aid in maintaining the desired airspeed by
adjusting the pitch attitude on the attitude indicator to change the vertical
speed 200 feet per minute to gain or lose 5 knots in airspeed.
8. Level-Off
from Descents at Cruise Airspeed
a. At approximately 150 feet above
the desired altitude, advance power to cruise power setting.
b. The
vertical-speed indicator is primary for pitch until the normal lead for
level-off is reached. At this time, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch.
Properly executed, cruise airspeed should be reached as the level off is
completed.
c. Trim is particularly important, since the nose tends to
rise when the power is applied.
9. Level-Off from Descents at Descent
Airspeed
a. At approximately 50 feet above the desired altitude,
advance the power to a setting which will hold the airspeed constant.
Simultaneously adjust pitch attitude to maintain airspeed.
b. As the
level-off is started, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch and the airspeed
indicator becomes primary for power.
c. Trim.
10. Student
Practice.
Enter descents and execute level-off from descents at
cruising and descending airspeed:
a. With all available instruments.
b. Without the attitude indicator and heading indicator.
Lesson 5
- Turns and Heading Indicator Turns
1. Standard Rate Turns at Cruising
Airspeed
a. Turn entry and recovery.
(1) In level flight,
enter a turn. As the turn is established on the attitude indicator, it becomes
primary for bank. When the approximate desired bank is reached, the miniature
aircraft of the turn coordinator becomes primary for bank and the attitude
indicator becomes supporting for bank. The altimeter is primary for pitch and
the airspeed indicator is primary for power.
(2) Loss of vertical
lift. Pitch attitude must be changed to hold a constant altitude. Apply
corrections only when the instruments show need for correction.
(3)
When the desired bank is reached, it may be necessary to hold slight aileron and
rudder pressure opposite the direction of turn to maintain the desired bank.
Emphasize maintaining a constant bank angle.
(4) Power is adjusted as
necessary to maintain a constant airspeed.
(5) Recovery to
straight-and-level flight. The roll-out is accomplished by reference to the
attitude indicator. When the normal lead for roll-out is reached, the heading
indicator (if available) becomes primary for bank. Adjust the pitch attitude and
power as necessary to maintain the desired altitude and airspeed.
b.
Turn entry with rudder alone.
(1) Enter a turn using only rudder.
Show the resulting skid, displacement of the ball, and the effect on airspeed.
(2) Show that the aircraft is turning faster than the bank indicates.
c. Turn entry with aileron alone.
(1) Enter a turn using
only aileron. Show yaw caused by aileron drag and that coordinated use of rudder
and aileron eliminates its effect.
(2) When correcting for a slip or
skid, the angle of bank will have to be changed to maintain a constant rate
turn.
d. Angle of bank for standard rate turn.
Approximate Angle (to nearest
Airspeed in
Knots degree)
for
(True)
3°/Second
80
12°
90
14°
100
15°
110
17°
120
18°
130
20°
140
21°
150
22°
NOTE - A rule-of-thumb to find the amount of bank needed for a standard
rate turn is to divide the airspeed by 10 and add one-half the answer. For 100
knots, the angle of bank required is:
100
---- =
10 + 5 (one-half of 10) = 15°
10
(1) Make turns at low cruise airspeed, using correct bank for standard
rate.
(2) Make turns at normal cruise airspeed, using correct bank
for standard rate.
(3) Make turns at high cruise speed, using correct
bank for standard rate.
e. Student practice turns.
(1)
First without the hood, then with the hood.
(2) Full and partial
panel.
2. Climbing and Descending Turns
a. Entry.
(1)
The entry may be made in three ways: enter the climb/descent then the turn;
enter the turn then the climb/descent; enter the climb/descent and turn
simultaneously.
(2) Point out that these maneuvers require
simultaneous use of bank and pitch techniques previously learned individually
for level turns and straight climbs and descents.
(3) When climbing
or descending airspeed is reached, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for
pitch.
(4) The manifold pressure gauge is primary for power, and as
the approximate desired bank is reached, the miniature aircraft of the turn
coordinator becomes primary for bank.
(5) Emphasize trim.
b. Level-off
(1) Combine techniques previously described
for climb and descent level-offs and turn recovery.
(2) The student
may stop the turn, then level-off, or level-off then stop the turn, or level-off
and stop the turn simultaneously.
c. Student practice. Make climbing
and descending turns, leveling-off at various airspeeds:
(1) With all
available instruments.
(2) Without the attitude indicator.
3.
Turns to Predetermined Headings
a. Enter a coordinated standard rate
turn. Show the student that the aircraft will turn as long as the wings are
banked and point out that the rollout must be started before reaching the
desired heading.
b. As a guide for rollout on a desired heading, use a
lead of 1° for each 2° of bank being held. Never exceed in bank the number of
degrees to be turned, and in no case exceed a standard rate of turn.
c. With the attitude indicator covered, have the student change
heading 30° using a standard rate turn.
d. With all instruments
available, show the proper bank to use when changing heading less than 15°.
e. Student practice. Make turns to various headings:
(1)
With all available instruments.
(2) Without the attitude indicator.
Lesson 6 - Instrument Takeoff
1. Cockpit Check
a. Stress the
importance of a complete and careful cockpit check.
b. Emphasize the
importance of setting the miniature aircraft properly.
c. Emphasize
setting the trim properly.
2. Taxi to Takeoff Position
a.
Accurately align the aircraft with the runway, being sure that the nose wheel or
tail wheel is straight.
b. Set the heading indicator with the nose
index on the 5° mark nearest the published heading of the runway. Be sure the
instrument is uncaged.
c. Hold the aircraft stationary with brakes.
3. Takeoff
a. Advance the power to a setting that will provide
partial rudder control.
b. Release the brakes and advance the throttle
smoothly to takeoff power.
c. During the takeoff roll, the heading
indicator is primary for directional control. Control direction with rudder.
(Use brakes as a last resort.)
d. As you reach a speed where elevator
control becomes effective (approximately 15 to 25 knots below takeoff speed),
note acceleration error and establish takeoff attitude on the attitude indicator
(approximately a 2-bar width).
e. As the aircraft approaches flying
speed and immediately after leaving the ground, the pitch and bank attitudes are
controlled by reference to the attitude indicator. When the altimeter and
vertical-speed indicator show a climb, you are airborne. Continue to maintain
heading by reference to the heading indicator.
f. Continue to maintain
the pitch and bank attitudes by reference to the attitude indicator.
g. Maintain a stable climb as indicated by the altimeter and
vertical-speed indicator and at 100 feet call for gear retraction.
h.
When the gear is retracted, maintain a pitch attitude on the attitude indicator
that will give a continuous climb on the vertical-speed indicator and a smooth
increase in airspeed.
i. The heading indicator becomes primary for
bank when the vertical-speed indicator and altimeter indicate a climb.
j. Retract the flaps as soon as a safe altitude and airspeed is
reached.
k. When climbing airspeed is reached, reduce power to the
climb setting. At this time, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch
and the manifold pressure gauge (or tachometer) becomes primary for power.
l. The climb-out is accomplished as a constant airspeed climb.
m. The trim is set prior to takeoff. Do not alter the trim until after
the aircraft is definitely airborne, then relieve control pressures with trim as
necessary.
4. Student Practice.
Instrument takeoffs to be
practiced:
a. Without the hood.
b. With the hood.
Lesson
7 - Rate Climbs and Descents
1. Climbs at a Definite (Indicated) Rate
a. While maintaining straight-and-level flight, change to climb
airspeed.
b. Enter a climb from an exact altitude with climbing
airspeed.
c. Advance the power to the approximate setting that will
result in a 500-foot per minute rate of climb. Simultaneously adjust pitch
attitude to maintain a constant airspeed.
d. As the power is advanced
in the climb entry, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch and remains
so until the vertical speed approaches a rate of climb of 500 feet per minute.
At this time, the vertical-speed indicator becomes primary for pitch and remains
so for the remainder of the climb. The airspeed indicator again becomes the
primary instrument for power.
e. The heading indicator is primary for
bank throughout the maneuver.
f. Show that any deviation in vertical
speed indicates the need for a pitch change, and that the airspeed is controlled
by the use of power.
g. Show how pitch and power changes must be
coordinated closely. For example:
(1) If the vertical speed is
correct but the airspeed is high, reduce power.
(2) If the vertical
speed is high and the airspeed is low, reduce pitch.
(3) If the
vertical speed is low and the airspeed is low, increase both pitch and power.
(4) If the vertical speed is high and the airspeed is high, reduce
both pitch and power.
h. Emphasize trim throughout.
2. Level-Off
from a Climb at a Definite (Indicated) Rate.
Follow the same procedure
that was described previously for level-off from a constant airspeed climb.
3. Descents at a Definite (Indicated) Rate
a. Enter a descent from
an exact altitude and descending airspeed.
b. Reduce power to the
approximate setting for a 500-foot per minute rate of descent, simultaneously
adjusting pitch attitude to maintain a constant airspeed.
c. As the
power is reduced in the descent entry, the airspeed indicator is primary for
pitch and remains so until the vertical speed approaches a rate of descent of
500 feet per minute. At this time, the vertical-speed indicator becomes primary
for pitch and remains so for the remainder of the descent. As the vertical-speed
reaches 500 feet per minute, the airspeed indicator becomes the primary
instrument for power.
d. The heading indicator is primary for bank
throughout the maneuver.
e. Show how pitch and power changes must be
coordinated (see examples given for climbs).
f. Emphasize trim.
4.
Level-Off from a Descent at a Definite (Indicated) Rate.
Follow the
same procedure that has been described previously for level-off from constant
airspeed descents.
5. Student Practice.
Make climbs and descents
at a definite indicated rate.
6. Calibration of the Vertical-Speed Indicator
a. Establish a climb or descent at a 500-foot per minute indicated
rate.
b. Each 15 seconds, check the altimeter for a 125-foot altitude
change.
c. If the altitude change is more or less than 125 feet,
adjust the vertical speed accordingly.
d. Repeat the procedure until a
vertical speed is determined that will produce the desired rate.
e.
Any error found during calibration should be considered during subsequent rate
climbs or descents.
7. Student Practice.
Calibrate the
vertical-speed indicator during both climbs and descents.
8. Climbs at a
Definite (Absolute) Rate
a. Establish climbing airspeed.
b.
As the clock second hand passes any cardinal point (12, 3, 6, or 9), enter the
climb using the same technique that has been described for the entry into a
climb at a definite indicated rate.
c. The primary pitch, bank, and
power instruments are the same as those which are primary during climbs at a
definite indicated rate.
d. Since the aircraft does not start climbing
immediately after power is applied, the altimeter is approximately 20 to 30 feet
behind the clock. This lag is maintained throughout the climb.
e. Use
the first 30 seconds to establish the proper vertical speed and trim.
f. Check the clock and altimeter every 15 seconds thereafter for 125
feet of altitude change.
g. Show the student how to correct for any
errors.
9. Level-Off from a Climb at a Definite (Absolute) Rate.
Follow the same procedures that were described previously for
level-off from a constant airspeed climb.
10. Student Practice.
Make climbs and descents at a definite absolute rate.
Lesson 8 -
Vertical S, S-1, and S-2
1. Vertical S.
This maneuver is a series
of climbs and descents at a definite indicated rate.
a. Climbing or
descending airspeed should be established prior to entry.
b. During
the reversal of vertical direction, lead the altitude 40 to 60 feet in descents
and 20 to 30 feet in climbs.
c. Change the altitude 500 feet, 400
feet, 300 feet, then 200 feet, returning to the original altitude each time.
After the 200-foot altitude change, return to the original altitude and
level-off at climbing or descending airspeed (low cruise).
d.
Performing the Vertical S.
(1) From an exact altitude and climbing or
descending airspeed, adjust power and pitch attitude to enter a climb or
descent.
(2) As the power is adjusted in the entry, the airspeed
indicator becomes primary for pitch.
(3) As the vertical speed
approaches 500 feet per minute, the vertical-speed indicator becomes primary for
pitch and remains so until the reversal of the vertical direction is started. As
the vertical speed reaches 500 feet per minute, the airspeed indicator again
becomes the primary instrument for power.
(4) As the reversal of the
vertical direction is started, the airspeed indicator becomes primary for pitch
and remains so until the vertical speed approaches the desired rate of 500 feet
per minute.
(5) Stress the importance of trim and cross-check.
2.
Vertical S-1.
This maneuver is a combination of the vertical "S" and a
standard rate turn.
a. Enter in the same manner as a climbing or
descending turn.
b. Reverse the direction of turn with each return to
entry altitude.
c. Emphasize trim and smooth control technique.
3.
Vertical S-2.
This maneuver differs from the Vertical S-1 in that the
direction of turn is reversed with each reversal of vertical direction.
4.
Student Practice.
Perform Vertical S, S-1, and S-2:
a. With
all available instruments.
b. Without the attitude indicator.
Lesson 9 - Magnetic Compass
1. Turning Errors
a. The magnetic
compass gives erroneous turn indications when the aircraft is flying near
headings of north or south.
b. The magnitude of error varies with
angle of bank and proximity to north or south headings. The error becomes
progressively smaller as east or west headings are approached. The error also
depends on the latitude at which the aircraft is flying.
c. All
methods of compensating for turn error in medium latitudes are based on using a
definite and constant bank between 15° and 18°.
2. Northerly Turning Error
a. Fly a north heading long enough for the compass to settle down
(wings must be level).
b. Enter a turn toward the west. The compass
immediately indicates a turn in the opposite direction, i.e., toward the east.
(Return to the north heading.)
c. Enter a turn toward the east. The
compass indicates a turn toward the west. (Return to the north heading.)
d. Enter a very shallow banked turn toward the west. The compass
indicates momentarily that a straight course is being maintained. Point out that
the wings must be level to avoid turn errors. Repeat the demonstration in a
shallow turn toward the east.
e. Enter a steep turn. The compass lags
excessively and may swing completely around in the opposite direction from the
turn.
3. Southerly Turning Error
a. Fly a south heading and let
the compass settle down (wings must be level).
b. Enter a turn toward
the west. The compass indicates a much faster turn in the same direction.
(Return to the south heading.)
c. Enter a turn toward the east. The
compass indicates a much faster turn in the same direction.
d. The
wings must be level to avoid compass turn errors.
4. Acceleration and
Deceleration Error
a. Fly a heading of east.
b. Increase
airspeed in level flight to show acceleration error - compass indicates a turn
toward north.
c. Reduce airspeed in level flight to show deceleration
error - compass indicates a turn toward the south.
d. Lower the nose
at a constant power setting - show acceleration error.
e. Raise the
nose at a constant power setting - show deceleration error.
f. Fly a
heading of west and repeat the above demonstration.
g. Explain that
the magnitude of the error depends on the rate of acceleration or deceleration.
To read the compass accurately on easterly and westerly headings, the airspeed
must be constant.
h. Acceleration and deceleration errors are not
present in constant airspeed climbs and descents.
i. Show that
acceleration and deceleration errors are not present on north and south
headings.
j. Show that turn errors are not present on east and west
headings.
5. Turns to Magnetic Compass Headings
a. Turn to a
heading of north, using 15° to 18° of bank. Lead the heading an amount equal to
the latitude plus half the angle of bank.
b. Turn to heading of south,
using 15° to 18° of bank. Over-shoot the heading an amount equal to the latitude
minus half the angle of bank.
c. From south, then from north, turn to
a heading of east. Lead the heading approximately 5° when turning from a heading
of south to east and approximately 10° when turning from a heading of north to
east.
d. Turn to a heading of west, using the procedure given above.
e. Show that lead or lag must be interpolated when turning to
intermediate headings.
6. Student Practice.
Make turns to magnetic
compass headings:
a. Without the heading indicator.
b.
Without the heading indicator and attitude indicator.
Lesson 10 - Timed
Turns
1. Calibration of the Miniature Aircraft of the Turn Coordinator
a. With all instruments available, establish a standard rate turn as
indicated by the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator.
b. As the
clock second hand passes a cardinal point (12, 3, 6, or 9), check the heading
indicator.
c. Check for a turn of 30° each 10 seconds (no lag, since
timing is started after turn is established).
d. Make necessary
changes in indicated rate (miniature aircraft position) to produce a standard
rate turn.
e. Calibrate miniature aircraft of turn coordinator both
right and left.
f. Note exact deflection of miniature aircraft and use
during all timed turns.
2. Timed Turns with All Instruments Available
a. Enter a standard rate turn when the clock second hand passes a
cardinal point (12, 3, 6, or 9).
b. The first 30 seconds is used to
establish the turn properly.
c. Check the heading indicator to see
whether the rate of turn is proper. It should indicate a turn of 90° minus the
number of degrees lag for the angle of bank used (lag will be approximately
one-half the degree of bank).
d. Demonstrate how the angle of bank is
increased or decreased to compensate for any error.
e. After the first
30 seconds, the heading indicator should be checked against the clock every 15
seconds.
f. Time is started when pressure is applied to roll into a
turn and is stopped when pressure is applied to roll out.
g. With all
instruments available, roll out on the desired heading regardless of time.
3. Timed Turns without the Heading Indicator and Attitude Indicator
a. Enter a standard rate turn, using the miniature aircraft of the
turn coordinator as the primary bank instrument while in the turn.
b.
Turn for 30 seconds, using a constant miniature aircraft position.
c.
At the end of 30 seconds, roll out of the turn at the same rate you made the
roll-in.
d. With the wings level and the miniature aircraft of the
turn coordinator indicating zero rate of turn, the magnetic compass should
indicate that a turn of 90° has been made.
e. For small changes in
heading, use a half-standard-rate turn as indicated by the miniature aircraft of
the turn coordinator.
4. Student Practice. Make timed turns at different
airspeeds:
a. With all available instruments.
b. Without the
heading indicator.
c. Without the heading indicator and attitude
indicator.
Lesson 11 - Steep Turns
1. Demonstrate Steep Turns
a. Explain that any turn greater than standard rate is considered a
steep turn.
b. Stress value of steep turn to increase student's
ability to react quickly and smoothly to rapid changes in attitude.
NOTE - Student should use normal rate of roll-in and roll-out.
c. Point out that entry, turn, and recovery procedures are the same as
those used in normal turns.
d. To maintain altitude as bank increases,
the nose of the aircraft must be raised to compensate for the decrease of
vertical lift.
e. With the increase in drag, the airspeed tends to
decrease, so power must be added to maintain the desired airspeed.
2.
Performance of Steep Turns-Full Panel
a. Enter a turn of more than a
standard rate.
b. The altimeter is primary for pitch. To maintain
altitude, make a pitch change only when the pitch instruments show the need for
a change.
c. The airspeed indicator is primary for power. Add power
when the airspeed indicator shows a need for it.
d. Cross-check the
attitude indicator, altimeter, and vertical-speed indicator for pitch control.
Refer to the attitude indicator when making pitch corrections, taking precession
error into consideration.
3. Performance of Steep Turns-Partial Panel
a. Use the turn coordinator to maintain a constant rate of turn.
b. Control pitch by reference to the altimeter/vertical-speed
indicator combination.
4. Recovery
a. Should be smooth with a
normal rate of roll.
b. Since vertical lift increases, pitch attitude
and power should be reduced as required to maintain altitude and airspeed.
5. Student Practice. Make steep turns:
a. With all available
instruments.
b. Without the attitude indicator and heading indicator.
Lesson 12 - Recovery From Unusual Attitudes
1. General Considerations
Assume that an unusual attitude exists if
the rate of movement of the instruments is not normal. When an unusual attitude
is detected, prompt corrective action is essential. In moderate unusual
attitudes, the pilot can normally reorient himself by establishing a level
flight indication on the Attitude Indicator. However, recoveries should be made
primarily by reference to the airspeed indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator,
and the vertical-speed indicator for these reasons; (1) many aircraft are
equipped with spillable attitude indicators, and (2) the gyroscopic instruments
may become inoperative, or, in extreme attitudes, difficult to interpret.
2.
Rules for Recovery
Check the trend of the airspeed indicator and
altimeter to determine whether the nose is low or high. Determine the direction
of turn by reference to the turn coordinator. Make corrective control
applications almost simultaneously. Emphasize proper interpretation of attitude
to ensure proper control sequence. The example given below is the recommended
sequence for most situations.
a. If the nose is low:
(1)
Reduce the power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of altitude.
(2) Level the wings by applying coordinated aileron and rudder pressures to
level the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator and center the ball.
(3) Apply elevator pressure to correct the pitch attitude to level
flight.
b. If the nose is high:
(1) Apply power.
(2) Apply forward elevator pressure to lower the nose and prevent a stall.
(3) Correct the bank by applying coordinated aileron and rudder
pressure level the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator and center the
ball.
c. The pitch attitude will be approximately level when the
airspeed and altimeter needles stop their movement and the vertical-speed
indicator reverses its trend.
d. The airplane's bank attitude will be
approximately level when the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is
level.
e. Do not use the attitude indicator until you verify that it
is reliable.
f. Start a climb or descent back to the original altitude
and heading as soon as you attain full control of the aircraft and have a safe
airspeed.
3. Student Practice
a. Recovery from nose-low unusual
attitudes:
(1) With all available instruments.
(2) Without
the attitude indicator and heading indicator.
b. Recovery from
nose-high unusual attitudes:
(1) With all available instruments.
(2) Without the attitude indicator and heading indicator.
Lesson
13 - Change of Airspeed In Turns
1. Change from Normal to Low Cruise
Airspeed after Turn is Established
a. Establish a standard rate turn
at normal cruise airspeed.
b. Reduce power 3" to 5" (or 200 to 300 RPM
on an aircraft having a fixed pitch propeller) below power required for low
cruise airspeed.
c. Point out the increase in pitch attitude required
to maintain altitude as the airspeed decreases.
d. Point out the
reduction in bank required to maintain a standard rate turn as the airspeed
decreases.
e. Point out the similarity to change of airspeed in
straight-and-level flight.
f. The altimeter is primary for pitch and
the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is primary for bank.
g.
While the airspeed is changing, the manifold pressure gauge (or tachometer) is
primary for power. As the airspeed approaches the desired value, the airspeed
indicator becomes primary for power.
h. Stress trim as the airspeed
changes.
2. Change from Low to Normal Cruise Airspeed after Turn is
Established.
The procedure parallels that given above except -
a. The power must be overshot 3" to 5" (or 200 to 300 RPM on an
aircraft having a fixed pitch propeller).
b. The pitch is lowered to
maintain altitude.
c. The bank is increased to maintain a standard
rate turn.
3. Change Airspeed and Enter Turn Simultaneously.
The
procedure is the same as that described above, except the turn entry and power
change are started simultaneously.
4. Student Practice.
Make
changes of airspeed in turns:
a. After the turn has been established.
b. Entering turn and changing airspeed simultaneously.
c.
With all available instruments.
d. Without the attitude indicator and
heading indicator.
Lesson 14 - Climbs and Descents to Predetermined
Altitudes and Headings
1. Climbs to Predetermined Altitudes and Headings
(Climb 1,000 feet and turn 360°)
a. Change airspeed to climbing
airspeed in straight-and-level flight.
b. When the clock second hand
indicates the starting time (12, 3, 6, or 9), change pitch, bank, and power
simultaneously. Enter a standard rate climbing turn (3° per second and 500 feet
per minute).
c. Control bank as in timed turns, checking heading every
15 seconds after the first 30 seconds.
d. Control pitch as in rate
climbs, checking altitude every 15 seconds after the first 30 seconds.
e. Consider lag in heading and altitude. Maintain lag throughout the
maneuver.
f. Roll-out on correct heading and level-off on correct
altitude, regardless of time.
2. Descents to Predetermined Altitudes and
Headings (Descend 1,000 feet and turn 360°)
a. Change airspeed to
descending airspeed in straight-and-level flight.
b. Make a descending
turn paralleling procedures outlined above for climb.
3. Student Practice.
Make climbs and descents to altitudes and headings:
a. With
all available instruments.
b. Without the heading indicator and
attitude indicator.
Lesson 15 - Pattern "A"
The purpose of both Pattern "A" and Pattern "B" is to further develop
the pilot's ability to control the aircraft without deliberate thought. These
patterns help prepare the student for the holding patterns and procedure turns
he will fly during radio navigation. Initial practice should be on cardinal
headings for simplification; however, as proficiency increases the student
should be able to accomplish the patterns on any heading. The instructor may
make various changes in the patterns, or, the patterns may be flown over a
navigational facility, correcting for drift on each leg.
1. Brief Student Thoroughly Prior to the Flight
2. Performance of
Maneuver in the Aircraft
a. This maneuver should be performed first
with all available instruments, then on partial panel.
b. Start
Pattern "A" and demonstrate through the first three turns, then have the student
continue.
c. Timing should start when the clock second hand is on a
cardinal point, preferably the 12 o'clock position.
d. The timing for
this pattern is consecutive in that the time for each leg is started when
control pressure is applied to recover from the preceding turn.
e.
After recovery from turns, allow sufficient time for the compass card to stop
oscillating, then note the heading and correct if necessary. An exception is the
30-second leg. If you note an error in heading here, compensate for it by
lengthening or shortening the time allotted for the next turn.
f. The
turn coordinator and magnetic compass must be observed closely at all times. To
correct a heading, use a timed turn (for small heading changes, use a
half-standard rate turn).
g. An efficient cross-check is required
during airspeed changes so that corrections may be applied immediately.
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Lesson 16 - Pattern "B"
1. Brief Student Thoroughly Prior to the Flight
2. Performance of Maneuver in the Aircraft
a. Do not demonstrate
unless absolutely necessary.
b. All available instruments are used.
c. Roll out on headings regardless of time.
d. When changing
airspeed in turns, simultaneously change bank and power, also pitch if
applicable.
e. The descending final turn is made at an absolute rate.
f. The final descent is made to a minimum altitude set by the
instructor, or until the time expires, whichever comes first.
g. The
emergency pull-up is made as a normal go-around procedure, climbing to the
original altitude.
Figure 2. Pattern "B".
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Lesson 17 - Radar Approach (PAR)
1. Brief Student Thoroughly Prior to
Flight
2. Radar Pattern
a. Position the aircraft on a downwind leg
and on interphone simulate the initial call-up, the surveillance radar
controller, and the final controller.
b. The student reads back all
headings and altitudes given, and acknowledges all other transmissions except
when instructed otherwise by the final approach controller.
c. Perform
the prelanding check on the downwind leg. Change airspeed to initial approach
airspeed and set flaps as appropriate.
d. Make all heading changes in
the pattern with a standard rate turn.
e. Turn to base leg and
complete the final cockpit check.
f. Turn to the final approach
heading, reduce airspeed to approach speed, and make final flap setting.
Maintain altitude and heading while changing airspeed and setting flaps.
g. Enter a normal 500-foot per minute rate descent when so instructed
by the controller.
h. Final approach corrections:
(1) If
above or below the glide path, make an approximate pitch correction and monitor
the airspeed indicator for the need of power change.
(2) When
changing headings, do not exceed in bank angle the number of degrees to be
turned.
(3) Stress the importance of making immediate and precise
corrections when so instructed by the controller.
3. Student Practice
a. The instructor acts as the surveillance radar controller and the
final controller and has the student perform a simulated precision radar
approach at altitude.
b. Repeat the above to a landing runway. At
simulated PAR minimums, the instructor will take over and land the aircraft or
have the student perform a missed approach.
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